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Flexor digitorum superficialis (superficial finger flexor) is an extrinsic flexor muscle of the fingers at the proximal interphalangeal joints. The primary function of flexor digitorum superficialis is flexion of the middle phalanges (II-V) of the fingers at the proximal interphalangeal joints, however under continued action it also flexes the metacarpophalangeal joints and wrist joint.

Congenital erythropoietic porphyria (CEP) is a very rare inherited metabolic disorder resulting from the deficient function of the enzyme uroporphyrinogen lll cosynthase (Uroporphyrinogen I is an isomer of uroporphyrinogen III). Due to the impaired function of this enzyme, excessive amounts of particular porphyrins accumulate, particularly in the bone marrow, plasma, red blood cells, urine, teeth, and bones. The most common symptom of CEP is hypersensitivity of the skin to sunlight and some types of artificial light (photosensitivity), with blistering of the skin occurring after exposure. Affected individuals may also exhibit abnormal accumulations of body fluid under affected areas (edema) and/or persistent redness or inflammation of the skin (erythema). Affected areas of the skin may develop sac-like lesions (vesicles or bullae), scar, and/or become discolored (hyperpigmentation) if exposure to sunlight is prolonged.

Ammonia intoxication occurs when blood ammonium rises because the capacity to detoxify it by formation of glutamate and glutamine has been exceeded. Glutamine is an amide of glutamic acid which provides a non-toxic storage and transport form of ammonia. Ammonia increases synthesis of glutamine in brain. Accumulation of glutamine in brain results in elevation of osmotic pressure in nervous cells leading to brain edema.

Each adrenal gland has two distinct parts, each with a unique function, the outer adrenal cortex and the inner medulla, both of which produce hormones. Within the cortex are three layers, called "zones" (zona glomerulosa, zona fasciculata and zona reticularis). The adrenal cortex is devoted to production of hormones, namely aldosterone, cortisol, and androgens. The adrenal medulla is at the centre of each adrenal gland, and is surrounded by the adrenal cortex. The chromaffin cells of the medulla are the body's main source of the catecholamines adrenaline and noradrenaline, released by the medulla.

The inferior mesenteric artery has the following branches: left colic artery, sigmoid artery and the superior rectal artery. Therefore, the best choice will be sigmoid colon.

The ovarian ligament (also called the utero-ovarian ligament or proper ovarian ligament) is a fibrous ligament that connects the ovary to the lateral surface of the uterus. This ligament should not be confused with the suspensory ligament of the ovary, which extends from the ovary in the other direction. The round ligaments are a pair of cordlike structures in the pelvis that help support the uterus by connecting the front of the uterus to the groin region.

The superior lobe of the right lung consists of 3 segments: apical, posterior and anterior.

In competitive inhibition, an inhibitor that resembles the normal substrate binds to the enzyme, usually at the active site, and prevents the substrate from binding. At any given moment, the enzyme may be bound to the inhibitor, the substrate, or neither, but it cannot bind both at the same time

The eustachian tube, located in the Musculortubal canal, is a canal that connects the middle ear to the nasopharynx, which consists of the upper throat and the back of the nasal cavity. It controls the pressure within the middle ear, making it equal with the air pressure outside the body. The Eustachian tube also drains mucus from the middle ear. Upper respiratory tract infections or allergies can cause the Eustachian tube, or the membranes surrounding its opening to become swollen, trapping fluid, which serves as a growth medium for bacteria, causing ear infections.

Medial brachial cutaneous nerve is a branch of brachial plexus which arises from the medial cord of the brachial plexus. It supplies the skin of medial area of arm. Medial antebrachial supplies the anteromedial area of the forearm.

The organ of Corti, or spiral organ, is the receptor organ for hearing and is located in the mammalian cochlea. High frequency sound is located near the base of the cochlea (near the round and oval windows), while low frequency sound is located near the apex (helicotrema) and the middle frequency sound, middle part of the helix.

The duodenum, into which the stomach opens, is about 25 cm long, C-shaped and begins at the pyloric sphincter. The duodenum is described as having four parts:Superior part - is a continuation from the pylorus.Descending part - begins at the superior duodenal flexure.Horizontal part - It begins at the inferior duodenal flexure and passes transversely to the left.Ascending part - passes upward, joining with the jejunum at the duodenojejunal flexure.

The adenoid, also known as a pharyngeal tonsil or nasopharyngeal tonsil, is the superior-most of the tonsils. It is a mass of lymphatic tissue located behind the nasal cavity, in the roof of the nasopharynx, where the nose blends into the throat. The adenoids are part of the so-called Waldeyer ring of lymphoid tissue which also includes the palatine tonsils, the lingual tonsils and the tubal tonsils.

The superior vena cava (SVC) is the superior of the two venae cavae, the great venous trunks that return deoxygenated blood from the systemic circulation to the right atrium of the heart. Positionally, the SVC begins behind the lower border of the 1st right costal cartilage and descends vertically behind the 2nd and 3rd intercostal spaces to drain into the right atrium at the level of the 3rd costal cartilage. Thymoma will definitely press on the SVC.

Meckel diverticulum (also referred to as Meckel's diverticulum) is the most common congenital abnormality of the small intestine; it is caused by an incomplete obliteration of the vitelline duct (i.e. omphalomesenteric duct). It is located in the distal ileum.

The hypothalamus is a portion of the brain that contains a number of small nuclei with a variety of functions. It is responsible for the regulation of certain metabolic processes and other activities of the autonomic nervous system. Lesion in the hypothalamus is accompanied by disturbances in carbohydrate and fat metabolisms, disturbance in sleep and sexual functions.

The major duodenal papilla is a rounded projection at the opening of the common bile duct and pancreatic duct into the duodenum. The major duodenal papilla is, in most people, the primary mechanism for the secretion of bile and other enzymes that facilitate digestion. It is situated in the second part of the duodenum, 7–10 cm from the pylorus, at the level of the second or third lumbar vertebrae. The descending part of the duodenum (second part of duodenum) runs vertically downward on the right side of second and third lumbar vertebrae, in front of the hilum of the right kidney.

The ampulla of Vater, also known as the hepatopancreatic ampulla or the hepatopancreatic duct, is formed by the union of the pancreatic duct and the common bile duct. The ampulla is specifically located at the major duodenal papilla. Therefore, a malignant tumour of the big papillary of the duodenal will lead to the squeezing of the Hepatopancreatic ampulla.

The ureters arise from the pelvis of each kidney, and descend on top of the psoas major muscle to reach the brim of the pelvis. They then pass down along the sides of the pelvis, and finally curve forwards and enter the bladder from its left and right sides at the back of the bladder. In females, the ureters run posterior to the broad ligament of uterus and then along the free border of ovary.

Epispadias is a rare type of malformation of the penis in which the urethra ends in an opening on the upper aspect of the penis. Hypospadias is a congenital condition in males in which the opening of the urethra is on the underside of the penis.

The ulnar nerve originates from the C8-T1 nerve which then form part of the medial cord of the brachial plexus, and descends medial to the brachial artery, up until the insertion point of coracobrachialis muscle (middle 5 cm over the medial border of the humerus). Then, it pierces the medial intermuscular septum and enters the posterior compartment of the arm, accompanied by superior ulnar collateral vessels. It runs at the posteromedial aspects of the humerus, passing behind the medial epicondyle (in the cubital tunnel) at the elbow, where it can be palpated by hand.

The corticobulbar tract or corticonuclear tract is composed of the upper motor neurons of the cranial nerves. The muscles of the face, head and neck are controlled by the corticobulbar system, which terminates on motor neurons within brainstem motor nuclei.

The femoral nerve is a nerve in the thigh that supplies skin on the upper thigh and inner leg, and the muscles that extend the knee.

The anterior tubercle of the sixth cervical vertebra is known as the carotid tubercle or Chassaignac tubercle. This separates the carotid artery from the vertebral artery and the carotid artery can be massaged against this tubercle to relieve the symptoms of supraventricular tachycardia and for a temporary arrest of bleeding from its branches. The carotid tubercle is also used as a landmark for anaesthesia of the brachial plexus and cervical plexus.

Production of ATP by cells without mitochondria is via ANAEROBIC GLYCOLYSIS and its end product is lactate. Aerobic glycolysis progresses to citric acid cycle from pyruvate, especially when there is blood supply to make the necessary oxygen available for the process. This occurs in the mitochondria. When pyruvate kinase is deficient, then Anaerobic glycolysis ensues.

The right coronary artery supplies blood to the right ventricle and then supplies the underside (inferior wall) and backside (posterior wall) of the left ventricle.

The ulnar nerve is a nerve that runs near the ulna bone. It originates from the C8-T1 nerve roots which form part of the medial cord of the brachial plexus, and descends medial to the brachial artery, up until the insertion point of coracobrachialis muscle (middle 5 cm over the medial border of the humerus). Then, it pierces the medial intermuscular septum and enters the posterior compartment of the arm, accompanied by superior ulnar collateral vessels. It runs at the posteromedial aspects of the humerus, passing behind the medial epicondyle (in the cubital tunnel) at the elbow where it can be palpated by hand.

Balantidiasis is defined as large-intestinal infection with Balantidium coli, which is a ciliated protozoan. Pigs may be its primary reservoir. It is one of largest if not the largest protozoa to infect humans. Usually faeces contain blood and mucus. Diagnosis is made by finding large ciliated trophozoites or large cysts with a characteristic V-shaped nucleus in the stool. The trophozoites exist in the small intestine where two nuclei are visible, travel to the colon and by burrowing into the wall causing an ulcer similar to Entamoeba histolytica.

In renal physiology, ultrafiltration occurs at the barrier between the blood and the filtrate in the glomerular capsule (Bowman's capsule) in the kidneys. The high hydrostatic pressure forces small molecules in the tubular fluid such as water, glucose, amino acids, sodium chloride and urea through the filter, from the blood in the glomerular capsule across the basement membrane of the Bowman's capsule and into the renal tubules. But due to acute cardiac insufficiency, there will be low hydrostatic pressure and hence low urine output due to decreased glomerular filtration. The normal range for 24-hour urine volume is 800 to 2000 mL per day (with a normal fluid intake of about 2L per day). Oliguria is urine output < 500 mL in 24 h in an adult. Oliguria is urine output < 1 L in 24 h in a child.

The parametrium is the fibrous and fatty connective tissue that surrounds the uterus. This tissue separates the supravaginal portion of the cervix from the bladder. It connects the uterus to other tissues in the pelvis. It is different from the perimetrium, which is the outermost layer of the uterus. An associated form of pelvic inflammatory disease is inflammation of the parametrium known as parametritis. The key words here are modified subserous layer around cervix of the uterus which is quite different from the layers of the cervix.

The Bartholin's glands (also called Bartholin glands or greater vestibular glands) are two pea sized compound alveolar glands located slightly posterior and to the left and right of the opening of the vagina (labia majora). They secrete mucus to lubricate the vagina and are homologous to bulbourethral glands in males.

Walls of inguinal canal: Anteriorly: aponeuroses of external and internal oblique. Posteriorly: transversalis fascia. Superiorly: arching fibers of the internal oblique and transverse abdominis muscles. Inferiorly: inguinal ligament.

he facial artery arises from the external carotid near the angle of the mandible, runs along the posterior edge of the lower jaw, and curves upward over the outside of the jaw and across the cheek to the angle of the mouth. Applying pressure at the mandibular edge will help control bleeding.

When all fibers of the deltoid muscle contract simultaneously, it is the prime mover of arm abduction along the frontal plane which is innervated by the axillary nerve. Abduction is any motion of the limbs or other body parts that pulls away from the midline of the body. Swinging the hands from the side of the body up to the shoulder or higher is abduction. Adduction is the movement of a body part toward the body’s midline. So, if a person has their arms straight out at the shoulders and brings them down to their sides, it is adduction.

Bartholinitis is inflammation of one or both of the two Bartholin's glands, which are located one on either side of the opening of the vagina, behind the labia (lips)-the large lips of pudendum (labia majora).

The supramarginal gyrus is a portion of the parietal lobe. This area of the brain is also known as Brodmann area 40. The supramarginal gyrus is part of the somatosensory association cortex, which interprets tactile sensory data and is involved in perception of space and limbs location (learned purposeful movements). It is also involved in identifying postures and gestures of other people, and is thus a part of the mirror neuron system.

The latissimus dorsi is a large, flat muscle on the back that stretches to the sides, behind the arm, and is partly covered by the trapezius on the back near the midline. The latissimus dorsi is responsible for extension, adduction, transverse extension also known as horizontal abduction, flexion from an extended position, and (medial) internal rotation of the shoulder joint. It also has a synergistic role in extension and lateral flexion of the lumbar spine.

Parturition-induced rupture of pubic symphysis is an uncommon but severe complication of delivery. The shared innervation of the bladder and symphysis pubis underscores a hypothetical somato-vesical reflex whereby mechanical dysfunction of the symphysis pubis could lead Overactive bladder (OAB), whether due to improper signaling of bladder filling, a lowered threshold for the micturition reflex, or impaired bladder emptying (which sets the stage for increased urinary frequency).

The hepatogastric ligament or gastrohepatic ligament connects the liver to the lesser curvature of the stomach. It contains the right and the left gastric arteries. In the abdominal cavity it separates the greater and lesser sacs on the right. It is sometimes cut during surgery in order to access the lesser sac.

Tonsillitis is inflammation of the tonsils, typically of rapid onset. It is a type of pharyngitis. Symptoms may include sore throat, fever, enlargement of the tonsils, trouble swallowing, and large lymph nodes around the neck. Complications include peritonsillar abscess. Key words: palatine arches.

Exophthalmus is a bulging of the eye anteriorly out of the orbit due to thyrotoxicosis. Thyrotoxicosis means an excess of thyroid hormone in the body. Having this condition also means a low level of thyroid stimulating hormone, TSH, in the bloodstream, because the pituitary gland senses “enough” thyroid hormone.

The teres major is a thick muscle of the shoulder joint. It spans from the inferior aspect of the scapula to the proximal part of the humeral shaft. The teres major muscle from Latin teres, meaning "rounded") is positioned above the latissimus dorsi muscle and assists in the extension and medial rotation of the humerus.

In the main bronchi, the cartilage forms C-shaped rings like those in the trachea. They are lined with respiratory epithelium, which is classified as ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium. As branching continues through the bronchial tree, the amount of hyaline cartilage in the walls decreases until it is absent in the bronchioles or minor bronchi.

Cell metabolism is a series of enzyme catalysed reactions that build up or break down molecules. Enzymes are affected by temperature and pH. 1. Temperature - Very high temperatures disrupt the shape of the active site, which will reduce its activity by preventing the formation of enzyme/substrate complexes. 2. Enzymes are also sensitive to pH. Changing the pH will affect the charges on the amino acid molecules.

There is a certain correlation between age of individual and thymus activity. In neonates, it already appears to have a considerable mass of 13.3g on the average. Most intensive growth occurs during first 3 years of life, when the gland doubles in size. Having reached the maximum weight (about 26-30g), the thymus retains it until 20 years of life. After 20 years of age, the thymus parenchyma experiences gradual involution and is substituted with fat tissue. After 50 years of age, the fat constitutes 90% of gland mass. It is therefore normal to see a shadow of thymus gland in a 6 months old child.

The right main bronchus, about 2.5 cm in length, is shorter, wider, and more nearly vertical than the left. Because it is in almost a direct line with the trachea, foreign objects traversing the trachea are more likely to enter the right main bronchus.

Dressler syndrome is also known as postmyocardial infarction syndrome and the term is sometimes used to refer to post-pericardiotomy pericarditis. It is believed to result from an autoimmune inflammatory reaction to myocardial neo-antigens formed as a result of the MI. It is a secondary form of pericarditis that occurs in the setting of injury to the heart or the pericardium (the outer lining of the heart). It consists of fever, pleuritic pain, pericarditis and/or a pericardial effusion.

Metastases of breast (mammary gland) cancer is either local or distant.Local metastases are usually to the lymphatic nodes of breast base, axilla, subclavicular, parasternal nodes. Distant metastases are hematologic ones, 40-50% to the bones, lungs and liver.

FILIFORM PAPILLAE are the smallest but most numerous. Contain no taste buds. Found on the entire anterior dorsal surface. They are the ones that will be coated since they are numerous. FOLIATE PAPILLAE contain taste buds and are found on the lateral edge of the tongue. FUNGIFORM PAPILLAE have taste buds and have the shape of a mushroom. CIRCUMVALLATE are found just anterior to the sulcus terminalis. They divide the tongue into anterior 2/3 and posterior 1/3. Contain taste buds too.

The interosseous ligament (membrane) lies between the tibia and fibula. (Interosseous means between bones.) The interosseus ligament is a long sheet of connective tissue that connects the entire length of the tibia and fibula, from the knee to the ankle.

The triceps, also triceps brachii is a large muscle on the back (posterior) of the upper arm between the shoulder and the elbow. It is the muscle principally responsible for extension of the elbow joint (straightening of the arm).

The iliohypogastric nerve is a nerve that originates from the lumbar plexus that supplies sensation to skin over the lateral gluteal region and motor to the internal and transverse abdominal muscles. It has the following branches: lateral and anterior cutaneous, and the communication branch. The anterior cutaneous branch ("hypogastric branch") continues onward between the abdominal internal oblique and transverse muscles and is distributed to the skin of the hypogastric region.

Pheochromocytoma is a neuroendocrine tumor of the medulla of the adrenal glands (originating in the chromaffin cells), or extra-adrenal chromaffin tissue that failed to involute after birth, that secretes high amounts of catecholamines, mostly norepinephrine, plus epinephrine to a lesser extent. These causes the above symptoms.

The thoracic duct empties into the left internal jugular vein, posterior to the clavicular insertion of the sternocleidomastoid muscle. A transverse left supraclavicular incision is used to approach the cervical thoracic duct. The left venous angle or corner receives lymph from the thoracic duct. The right venous angle receives lymph from the right lymphatic trunk.

A left shift indicates the presence of immature neutrophils in blood and usually, but not always, indicates an inflammatory leukogram. When the absolute numbers of band or immature neutrophils are greater than the absolute numbers of mature or segmented neutrophils, the term a degenerative left shift is used. This usually occurs in the context of a low (neutropenia) or normal segmented neutrophil count. A degenerative left shift generally indicates severe inflammation, which is usually due to bacterial infection. Regenerative left shift: It is usually used in the context of a neutrophilia with a left shift, but when mature neutrophils outnumber immature neutrophils.

The interosseous muscles of the hand are muscles found near the metacarpal bones that help to control the fingers. They are considered voluntary muscles.They are generally divided into two sets: 1. Four (4) Dorsal interossei - Abduct the digits away from the 3rd digit (away from axial line) and are bipennate.2. three (3) Palmar interossei - Adduct the digits towards the 3rd digit (towards the axial line) and are unipennate.

The teres major is a thick muscle of the shoulder joint. It spans from the inferior aspect of the scapula to the proximal part of the humeral shaft. The teres major muscle from Latin teres, meaning "rounded") is positioned above the latissimus dorsi muscle and assists in the extension and medial rotation of the humerus.

The ligamenta flavum is a short but thick ligament that connects the laminae of adjacent vertebrae from C2 to S1. It consists of 80% elastin and 20% collagen. It is widest in the lumbar region. Therefore, thes regions are used for the punctures of the vertebral canal (L3-L4) to access the subarachnoid space.

The anterior grey column (also called the anterior horn of spinal cord or ventral horn) is the front column of grey matter in the spinal cord. It is one of the three grey columns. The anterior grey column contains motor neurons that affect the skeletal muscles while the posterior grey column receives information regarding touch and sensation. The anterior grey column is the column where the cell bodies of alpha motor neurons are located.

We do not know why the answer from krok is 2,0 L/min. However, Dead space is the volume of air that is in passageways and doesn't get involved in gas exchange. Tidal Volume (TV) - Dead Space = amount involved in alveolar ventilation. Alveolar ventilation rate (AVR) = Frequency x (TV- Dead Space). From the question, we have 5L = 10 (0.7L – Dead space). Dead space = 0,2 L/min.

The left colic artery is a branch of the inferior mesenteric artery that runs to the left behind the peritoneum and in front of the psoas major muscle, and after a short, but variable, course divides into an ascending and a descending branch. Left colic artery (sinister colic) ascends leftwards to supply the descending colon and hence its thrombosis can lead to gangrenous lesion of the descending colon.

The pelvis is either the lower part of the trunk of the human body between the abdomen and the thighs (sometimes also called pelvic region of the trunk) or the skeleton embedded in it (sometimes also called bony pelvis, or pelvic skeleton). The pelvic skeleton is formed posteriorly (in the area of the back), by the sacrum and the coccyx and laterally and anteriorly (forward and to the sides), by a pair of hip bones. Each hip bone consists of 3 sections, ilium, ischium, and pubis.

Polycythemia is a disease state in which the hematocrit (the volume percentage of red blood cells in the blood) is elevated. An increased number of red blood cells (polycythemia) causes reduced ESR as blood viscosity increases. Hemoglobinopathy such as sickle-cell disease can have low ESR due to an improper shape of red blood cells that impairs stacking.

Just above the sternum the two anterior jugular veins communicate by a transverse trunk, the jugular venous arch (where suprasternal space is), which receive tributaries from the inferior thyroid veins; each also communicates with the internal jugular.

The precentral gyrus (also known as the motor strip) is the site of the primary motor cortex (Brodmann area 4). Lower parts of the body are represented in the lateral (upper, superior) surface and the upper parts (head muscles) of the body are represented in the lateral (lower, inferior) surface.

The inguinal canals are the two passages in the anterior abdominal wall which in males convey the spermatic cords and the ilioinguinal nerve and in females the round ligament of uterus and the ilioinguinal nerve. If gender of patient is not specified, it usually means in men.

In the developing fetus, the ductus arteriosus, also called the ductus Botalli, is a blood vessel connecting the main pulmonary artery to the aorta. It allows most of the blood from the right ventricle to bypass the fetus's fluid-filled non-functioning lungs. Upon closure at birth, it becomes the ligamentum arteriosum. Failure to close after birth results in a condition called patent ductus arteriosus and the generation of a left-to-right shunt. If left uncorrected, patency leads to pulmonary hypertension and possibly congestive heart failure and cardiac arrhythmias and developmental lag.

Otitis media is a middle ear infection that is most common in infants and young children, especially those between the ages of 6 months and 3 years. The middle ear is connected to the throat by a small tube called the eustachian tube (also known as the auditory tube or pharyngotympanic tube). It's protected from the outside by a thin shield called the tympanic membrane, or eardrum. Viruses and bacteria that normally live in the throat can sometimes cross into the middle ear through the eustachian tube, causing an infection.

The lesser sac, also known as the omental bursa, is a cavity in the abdomen that is formed by the lesser and greater Omentum lying POSTERIOR to the stomach and lesser ometum. Key words: ulcer perforation in the posterior wall of stomach.

The patella, also known as the kneecap, is a flat, circular-triangular bone which articulates with the femur (thigh bone) and covers and protects the anterior articular surface of the knee joint. Key point: Severe edema on the anterior surface of the knee joint.

The nasal cavity is a large, air-filled space above and behind the nose in the middle of the face. The nasal septum divides the cavity into two cavities, also known as fossae. Each cavity is the continuation of one of the two nostrils. The nasal vestibule is the most anterior part of the nasal cavity. It is enclosed by the cartilages of nose and lined by the same epithelium of the skin (stratified squamous, keratinized). The other part of the nasal cavity, which is lined by the respiratory epithelium, is called nasal cavity proper. The limen nasi is a mucous ridge between the nasal cavity proper and the nasal vestibule

Keeled chest also called pigeon or rachitic chest is a malformation of the chest characterized by a protrusion of the sternum and ribs. Thus greater anteroposterior diameter (compared with the transverse diameter). Funnel chest or pectus excavatum is a structural deformity of the anterior thoracic wall in which the sternum and rib cage are shaped abnormally. This produces a caved-in or sunken appearance of the chest (funnel shaped). Barrel chest refers to an increase in the anterior posterior diameter of the chest wall resembling the shape of a barrel, most often associated with emphysema

A bronchopulmonary segment is a portion of lung supplied (ventilated) by a specific tertiary bronchus (also called a segmental bronchus) and arteries. These arteries branch from the pulmonary and bronchial arteries, and run together through the center of the segment.

The recto-vesical pouch (Excavatio rectovesicalis) is the pocket that lies between the rectum and the urinary bladder in human males and other male mammals. When a man is upright or supine, the recto-vesical pouch is the lowest part of his peritoneal cavity. Because of this, peritoneal fluid and other fluids that enter the peritoneal cavity, including ascites, blood and pus, tend to collect in this pouch. In women, the uterus lies between the rectum and the bladder. Therefore, women do not have a recto-vesical pouch, but instead have a recto-uterine pouch and vesico-uterine pouch.

The red nucleus is one of the brainstem nuclei and part of the extrapyramidal system. The red nuclei are situated within the tegmentum of the midbrain (the part between the cerebral peduncles and the quadrigeminal plate). It consists of a larger neorubrum and smaller paleorubrum.

When all fibers of the deltoid muscle contract simultaneously, it is the prime mover of arm abduction along the frontal plane which is innervated by the axillary nerve. Abduction is any motion of the limbs or other body parts that pulls away from the midline of the body. Swinging the hands from the side of the body up to the shoulder or higher is abduction. Adduction is the movement of a body part toward the body’s midline. So, if a person has their arms straight out at the shoulders and brings them down to their sides, it is adduction.

The lingual artery arises from the external carotid between the superior thyroid artery and facial artery. It can be located easily in the tongue. The deep lingual artery travels superiorly in a tortuous course along the under (ventral) surface- oral cavity floor- of the tongue, below the longitudinalis inferior, and above the mucous membrane.

The common bile duct (duct choledochus) forms in the porta hepatica as the result of merging of the common hepatic duct (ductus hepaticus communis) and the cystic duct (ductus cysticus). It is approximately 5-8cm long.

To determine the viability of myocardial cells, it is necessary to determine the rest potential of cardiomyocytes. The resting membrane potential of cardiomyocytes is roughly -90mV and during full depolarization the membrane potential reaches +20mV. The Cardiac Action Potential can be divided into three basic phases: Rapid Depolarization, Plateau, and Rapid Repolarization. Importantly, the plateau phase is unique to the cardiac action potential and is not found in that of skeletal muscle.

The hepatoduodenal ligament is the portion of the lesser omentum extending between the porta hepatis of the liver and the superior part of the duodenum. Running inside it are the following structures collectively known as the portal triad: hepatic artery proper, portal vein and common bile duct. Manual compression of the hepatoduodenal ligament during surgery is known as the Pringle Maneuver

Lumbar puncture is always the at the space between L3 and L4.

Inguinal lymph nodes are lymph nodes in the human groin. Located in the femoral triangle of the inguinal region, they are grouped into superficial and deep lymph nodes. The superficial inguinal lymph nodes are the inguinal lymph nodes that form a chain immediately below the inguinal ligament. They lie deep to the fascia of Camper that overlies the femoral vessels at the medial aspect of the thigh. They receive lymphatic afferents from the following: integument of the penis, scrotum, perineum, buttock, abdominal wall below the level of the umbilicus, back below the level of the iliac crest, vulva, anus (below the pectinate line), the thigh and the medial side of the leg (the lateral leg drains to the popliteal lymph nodes first).

Gluconeogenesis (GNG) is a metabolic pathway that results in the generation of glucose from certain non-carbohydrate carbon substrates. Gluconeogenesis occurs mainly in liver and in lesser extent, in the cortex of the kidneys. The precursors of gluconeogenesis are lactate, glycerol, amino acids, and with propionate making a minor contribution. The gluconeogenesis pathway consumes ATP, which is derived primarily from the oxidation of fatty acids.

The pterygopalatine fossa communicates with the nasal and oral cavities, infratemporal fossa, orbit, pharynx, and middle cranial fossa through eight foramina. Therefore, from the options here, an abscess of pterygopalatine fossa will easily to the orbit.

In the developing fetus, the ductus arteriosus, also called the ductus Botalli, is a blood vessel connecting the main pulmonary artery to the aorta. It allows most of the blood from the right ventricle to bypass the fetus's fluid-filled non-functioning lungs. Upon closure at birth, it becomes the ligamentum arteriosum. Failure to close after birth results in a condition called patent ductus arteriosus and the generation of a left-to-right shunt. If left uncorrected, patency leads to pulmonary hypertension and possibly congestive heart failure and cardiac arrhythmias and developmental lag.

Angular artery is the terminal segment of facial artery which branches within the medial angle of the eye. It anastomoses with the branches of the ophthalmic artery (i.e. the dorsal nasal artery). The two big arteries connected are the external and internal carotid artery.

Enterobins vermicularis (enterobiasis) is a human parasitic disease caused by pinworm. The main symptoms are pruritus ani (is the irritation of the skin at the exit of the rectum, known as the anus, causing the desire to scratch) and perineal (space between the anus and scrotum) pruritus. These helminthes can be found on the underwear and on the microscopy of the scrape from the perianal folds are achromic eggs of unsymmetrical forms.

When all fibers of the deltoid muscle contract simultaneously, it is the prime mover of arm abduction along the frontal plane which is innervated by the axillary nerve. Abduction is any motion of the limbs or other body parts that pulls away from the midline of the body. Swinging the hands from the side of the body up to the shoulder or higher is abduction. Adduction is the movement of a body part toward the body’s midline. So, if a person has their arms straight out at the shoulders and brings them down to their sides, it is adduction.

The superficial veins of the lower limbs give rise to the great and small saphenous veins. The small saphenous vein (vena saphena parva) arises at the lateral aspect of foot. It rounds the lateral malleolus and ascends along the posterior surface of leg in between the heads of the gastrocnemius muscle. The great saphenous vein arises from the medial portion of the dorsal venous network of foot ad ascends along the medial aspect of the leg and thigh.

The tympanic cavity is a small cavity surrounding the bones of the middle ear. Within it sit the ossicles, three small bones that transmit vibrations used in the detection of sound. The tympanic cavity is bounded by: 1. The medial wall (or labyrinthic wall) - facing the inner ear- has the oval window and round window, the promontory, and the prominence of the facial canal. 2. The lateral wall (or membranous wall)- facing the outer ear- is formed mainly by the tympanic membrane. 3. The roof of the cavity (tegmental wall) is formed by the tegmen tympani. 4. The floor of the cavity (the jugular wall) consists of the fundus tympani. 5. The posterior wall (or mastoid wall) formed by the entrance to the tympanic antrum, the pyramidal eminence, and the fossa incudes. 6. The anterior wall (or carotid wall) corresponds with the carotid canal

Malaria is usually confirmed by the microscopic examination of blood films or by antigen-based rapid diagnostic tests (RDT). In some areas, RDTs must be able to distinguish whether the malaria symptoms are caused by Plasmodium falciparum or by other species of parasites since treatment strategies could differ for non-P. falciparum infections. Microscopy is the most commonly used method to detect the malarial parasite.

The quadriceps femoris also called the quadriceps extensor, quadriceps or quads, is a large muscle group that includes the four prevailing muscles on the front of the thigh. All four quadriceps are powerful extensors of the knee joint. They are crucial in walking, running, jumping and squatting. Because the rectus femoris attaches to the ilium, it is also a flexor of the hip. This action is also crucial to walking or running as it swings the leg forward into the ensuing step. The quadriceps, specifically the vastus medialis, play the important role of stabilizing the patella and the knee joint during gait. They are innervated by the femoral nerve.

The portal vein or hepatic portal vein is a blood vessel that carries blood from the gastrointestinal tract, gallbladder, pancreas and spleen to the liver. Generally, the hepatic portal vein is about 8 centimeters (3 inches) long in adults, and is located in the upper right quadrant of the abdomen, which originates behind the neck of the pancreas and is part of the hepatic portal system. Therefore a trauma at the right subcostal region will or can damage the portal vein.

The middle cerebral artery is the greatest branch of the internal carotid artery. It runs along the lateral sulcus giving numerous branches. It supplies the lateral surface of the brain (parietal and frontal lobe) and the temporal lobe.

3 bursae are found at the superior level of the peritoneal cavity. These are the hepatic, pregastric (antegastric) and the omental bursa. Walls of the antegastric bursa are: Medially-falciform ligament. Posteriorly-anterior wall of stomach, lesser omentum, left portion of the coronary ligament and the left triangular ligament. Superiorly, laterally and anteriorly –parietal peritoneum. Inferiorly-transverse mesocolon. Pregastric bursa is found anterior to the stomach hence a stab wound of the anterior stomach wall will make the contents of the stomach to get into the pregastric (antegastric) bursa.

The popliteal artery is the continuation of the femoral artery that begins at the level of the adductor hiatus in the adductor magnus muscle of the thigh. As it continues down, it runs across the popliteal fossa, posterior to the knee joint. The popliteal artery passes obliquely through the popliteal fossa and then travels between the gastrocnemius and popliteal muscles of the posterior compartment of the leg.

Symptoms of Prostate Problems (prostatism) include: Frequent urge to urinate, need to get up many times during the night to urinate, Blood in urine or semen, Pain or burning urination, Painful ejaculation, Frequent pain or stiffness in lower back, hips, pelvic or rectal area, or upper thighs and Dribbling of urine.

The hip joint is the articulation of the femoral head with the acetabulum. The junctional location makes the femoral neck prone to fracture. The blood supply of the femoral head is an essential consideration in displaced fractures as it runs along the femoral neck

The peroneus muscles are a group of muscles in the leg. It is normally composed of three muscles: peroneus longus, brevis and tertius. The longus and brevis are both located in the lateral compartment of the leg while the tertius is located in the anterior compartment. Peroneous longus (Long peroneal) pronates, abducts and flexes the foot.

The axillary artery is a large blood vessel that conveys oxygenated blood to the lateral aspect of the thorax, the axilla (armpit) and the upper limb. Its origin is at the lateral margin of the first rib, before which it is called the subclavian artery. The brachial plexus is a network of nerves formed by the ventral rami of the lower four cervical nerves and first thoracic nerve (C5, C6, C7, C8, and T1). This plexus extends from the spinal cord, through the cervicoaxillary canal in the neck, over the first rib, and into the armpit. It supplies afferent and efferent nerve fibers to the chest, shoulder, arm and hand.

Dihydrouracil is an intermediate in the catabolism of uracil. Uracil (U) is one of the four nucleobases in the nucleic acid RNA that are represented by the letters A, G, C and U. The others are adenine (A), cytosine (C), and guanine (G). In RNA, uracil binds to adenine via two hydrogen bonds. In DNA, the uracil nucleobase is replaced by thymine.

The vestibulocochlear nerve is responsible for both hearing and balance and brings information from the inner ear to the brain

The muscles in the medial compartment of the thigh are collectively known as the hip adductors. There are five muscles in this group; gracilis, obturator externus, adductor brevis, adductor longus and adductor magnus.

The triceps, also triceps brachii is a large muscle on the back of the upper limb of many vertebrates. It is the muscle principally responsible for extension of the elbow joint (straightening of the arm).

The pyramidal tracts include both the corticobulbar tract and the corticospinal tract. These are aggregations of efferent nerve fibers from the upper motor neurons that travel from the cerebral cortex and terminate either in the brainstem (corticobulbar) or spinal cord (corticospinal) and are involved in the control of motor functions of the body. The corticospinal tracts begin in the cerebral cortex; from which they receive a range of inputs. After originating from the cortex, the neurons converge, and descend through the internal capsule (a white matter pathway, located between the thalamus and the basal ganglia). After the internal capsule, the neurons pass through the crus cerebri of the midbrain, the pons and into the medulla.

Tendons are white, flexible rope-like cords at the ends of muscles that attach muscles to bone. The deep palmar arch is an anastomotic vessel found in the deep compartment of the hand. It is mainly formed by the radial artery with a contribution of the ulnar artery via its deep palmar branch. The main function of the deep palmar arch is to provide blood supply for the bones, joints and deep muscles of the hand. These muscles include: adductor pollicis, dorsal interossei, palmar interossei, and lumbrical muscles.

Metastases of breast (mammary gland) cancer is either local or distant. Local metastases are usually to the lymphatic nodes of breast base, axilla, subclavicular, parasternal nodes. Distant metastases are hematologic ones, 40-50% to the bones, lungs and liver.

There are 9 regions of the abdomen and each holds its important organs. The regions are: right hypochondrium, epigastric region, left hypochondrium, right lumbar. umbilical region, left lumbar, right iliac, hypogastrium and left iliac region.The left lateral abdominal region (left lumbar region) has the following: descending colon, left kidney, left ureter, loops of small intestine.

The Sense of Smell. Smell depends on sensory receptors that respond to airborne chemicals. In humans, these chemoreceptors are located in the olfactory epithelium — a patch of tissue about the size of a postage stamp located high in the nasal cavity (superior nasal concha or turbinate).

The deep artery of the thigh is a branch of the femoral artery that travels more deeply (posteriorly) than the rest of the femoral artery. It is the main artery that supplies the thigh. The deep artery of the thigh gives off the following branches: Lateral circumflex femoral artery, Medial circumflex femoral artery and 3 Perforating arteries.

The recurrent laryngeal nerve is a branch of the vagus nerve (cranial nerve X) that supplies all the intrinsic muscles of the larynx, with the exception of the cricothyroid muscles. These muscles act to open, close, and adjust the tension of the vocal cords, and include the posterior cricoarytenoid muscles, the only muscle to open the vocal cords

Hypospadias is a congenital condition in males in which the opening of the urethra is on the underside of the penis. An epispadias is a rare type of malformation of the penis in which the urethra ends in an opening on the upper aspect of the penis.

Digitus minimus literally means smallest digit and can refer to: Little finger (fifth finger) or little toe (fifth toe). Note the gap between the bursa and the synovial sheaths of the 2nd, 3rd and 4th fingers. The little finger will most probably be damaged.

The recto-vesical pouch (Excavatio rectovesicalis) is the pocket that lies between the rectum and the urinary bladder in human males and other male mammals. When a man is upright or supine, the recto-vesical pouch is the lowest part of his peritoneal cavity. Because of this, peritoneal fluid and other fluids that enter the peritoneal cavity, including ascites, blood and pus, tend to collect in this pouch. In women, the uterus lies between the rectum and the bladder. Therefore, women do not have a recto-vesical pouch, but instead have a recto-uterine pouch and vesico-uterine pouch.

The juxtaglomerular cells, derived from smooth muscle cells, of the afferent arteriole secrete renin when blood pressure in the arteriole falls. Renin increases blood pressure via the renin-angiotensin- system. When there is a decrease in sodium chloride concentration the macula densa decreases resistance to blood flow in the afferent arterioles and it increases renin release from the juxtaglomerular cells of the afferent and efferent arterioles, which are the major storage sites for renin.

The thenar eminence refers to the group of muscles on the palm of the human hand at the base of the thumb. The flexor pollicis (of the thumb) longus is a muscle in the forearm and hand that flexes the thumb. Its tendon passes under the flexor retinaculum onto the palm and inserts into the base of the distal phalanx of the thumb. Flexor pollicis brevis attaches to the base of the proximal phalanx.

Tubal pregnancy means pregnancy in the uterine tube. The uterine artery divides into descending vaginal branch and ascending branch which supplies the body and fundus of the uterus. The ascending branch bifurcates into ovarian and tubal branches which continue within the broad ligament to supply the medial ends of the ovary and uterine tube and anastomose with the ovarian and tubal branches of the ovarian artery.

Hyperthermia, also known simply as overheating, is a condition where an individual's body temperature is elevated beyond normal due to failed thermoregulation. The person's body produces or absorbs more heat than it dissipates. An early stage of hyperthermia can be "heat exhaustion" (or "heat prostration" or "heat stress"), whose symptoms can include heavy sweating, rapid breathing and a fast, weak pulse. If the condition progresses to heat stroke, then hot, dry skin is typical as blood vessels dilate in an attempt to increase heat loss. Accompanying dehydration can produce nausea, vomiting, headaches, and low blood pressure and the latter can lead to fainting or dizziness, especially if the standing position is assumed quickly.

Glucocorticoids (Prednisolone) are among the most potent anti-inflammatory, anti-allergic, immunosuppressive, and anti-shock drug. They inhibit all the 3 stages of inflammation. The immunosuppressive effects make the patient susceptible to other infectious diseases e.g. chronic tonsillitis.

In human anatomy, the ligament of the head of the femur (round ligament of the femur, ligamentum teres femoris, or the foveal ligament) is a ligament located in the hip. It contains within it the acetabular branch of the obturator artery.

Kidney development, or nephrogenesis, describes the embryologic origins of the kidney, a major organ in the urinary system. The development of the kidney proceeds through a series of successive phases, each marked by the development of a more advanced kidney: pronephros, mesonephros, and metanephros. During the fifth week of gestation, the mesonephric duct develops an outpouching, the ureteric bud, near its attachment to the cloaca. This bud, also called the metanephrogenic diverticulum, grows posteriorly and towards the head of the embryo. The elongated stalk of the ureteric bud, called the metanephric duct, later forms the ureter. As the cranial end of the bud extends into the intermediate mesoderm, it undergoes a series of branchings to form the collecting duct system of the kidney. It also forms the major and minor calyces and the renal pelvis.

Esophageal atresia is a congenital medical condition (birth defect) that affects the alimentary tract. It causes the esophagus to end in a blind-ended pouch rather than connecting normally to the stomach. Any attempt at feeding could cause aspiration pneumonia as the milk collects in the blind pouch and overflows into the trachea and lungs.

The psoas major is a long fusiform muscle located on the side of the lumbar region of the vertebral column and brim of the lesser pelvis. It joins the iliacus muscle to form the iliopsoas. The psoas major is a major component of the renal bed together with other muscles such as the diaphragm, quadratus lumborum and transverse abdominis muscle.

Vasopressin causes low diuresis due to increased reabsorption of water leading to increased blood pressure. This means its decreased will cause reduced tubular reabsorption of water leading to polyuria.

The gracile fasciculus (Goll) is a tract, a bundle of nerve fibers in the dorsal column-medial lemniscus pathway of the spinal cord and carries information from the lower parts of the body. It provides conscious proprioception of the lower limbs and trunk to the brainstem. The cuneate primarily transmits information from the upper part of the body (the neck, trunk, and arms). Thus both provide fine and localized tactile sensation, sensation of vibration, conscious kinaesthetic sensation, stereognosis etc.

Occipital fontanelle usually closes by the time of 2-3 months old, anterior fontanelle by 7-18 months old.

The lateral hypothalamus (LH), also called the lateral hypothalamic area (LHA), contains the primary orexinergic nucleus within the hypothalamus that widely projects throughout the nervous system; this system of neurons mediates an array of cognitive and physical processes, such as promoting feeding behavior and arousal, reducing pain perception, and regulating body temperature, digestive functions, and blood pressure, among many others

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The iris sphincter muscle (pupillary sphincter, pupillary constrictor, circular muscle of iris, circular fibers) is a muscle in the part of the eye called the iris. It encircles the pupil of the iris, appropriate to its function as a constrictor of the pupil. With disturbed iris sphincter, pupil is dilated. The ciliary muscle is a ring of smooth muscle in the eye's middle layer (vascular layer) that controls accommodation for viewing objects at varying distances and regulates the flow of aqueous humor into Schlemm's canal.

Anulus lymphaticus cardiae refers to lymph nodes around cardia of the stomach, under lymph node. The thoracic part of the esophagus is usually the entering into the stomach (cardiac part).

The ligament of the head of the femur (round ligament of the femur, ligamentum teres femoris, or the foveal ligament) is a ligament located in the hip. It is triangular in shape and somewhat flattened.

Strabismus is a condition in which the eyes do not properly align with each other when looking at an object. Three of the twelve cranial nerves (III, IV, VI) are responsible for eye movement can be weak or palsied and cause strabismus. The lateral rectus muscle of the eye abducts the eyeball (pulls it away from the midline, right-side) and it is supplied by the abducent nerve (6th cranial nerve). A lesion of this nerve will lead to failure of eye to abduct or right-side convergent strabismus.

Addison's disease, also known as primary adrenal insufficiency (hypoaldosteronism), is a long-term endocrine disorder in which the adrenal glands do not produce enough steroid hormones. Glucocorticoids has been used for a long time to compensate for this and hence withdrawal from this medication leads to the above symptoms.

The bicipital aponeurosis (also known as lacertus fibrosus) is a broad aponeurosis of the biceps brachii which is located in the cubital fossa of the elbow and separates superficial from deep structures in much of the fossa. The bicipital aponeurosis originates from the distal insertion of the biceps brachii. While the tendon of the biceps inserts on the radial tuberosity, the aponeurosis reinforces the cubital fossa, and helps to protect the brachial artery and the median nerve running underneath. This protection is important during venipuncture (taking blood) from the median cubital vein.

The back of the neck or more precisely, the nuchal region has the following muscles: Extrinsic - descending part of the trapezius. Intrinsic - transversospinalis muscles divided to: superficial, intermediate and deep groups. Superficial group - splenius muscles - splenius cervicis, splenius capitis. Intermediate group - erector spinae muscles - iliocostalis cervicis, longissimus capitis, longissimus cervicis, spinalis cervicis. Deep group - transversospinalis muscles - semispinalis capitis, semispinalis cervicis (most superficially); multifidus (intermediate); rotatores brevis, rotatores longus (deepest).

The ileocolic artery is the lowest branch arising from the concavity of the superior mesenteric artery. It passes downward and to the right behind the peritoneum toward the right iliac fossa, where it divides into a superior and an inferior branch; the inferior gives rise to the appendicular artery and anastomoses with the end of the superior mesenteric artery, the superior with the right colic artery. Supplies the cecum, ileum, and appendix.

The emissary veins connect the extracranial venous system with the intracranial venous sinuses. They connect the veins outside the cranium to the venous sinuses inside the cranium. They drain from the scalp, through the skull, into the larger meningeal veins and dural venous sinuses.

Pulmonary surfactant is a mixture of lipids and proteins which is secreted into the alveolar space by epithelial type II cells. The main function of surfactant is to lower the surface tension at the air/liquid interface within the alveoli of the lung. Therefore, decrease of this leads to alveolar tendency to recede, thus alveolar collapse at end-expiration

The tibialis anterior is a muscle that originates in the upper two-thirds of the lateral (outside) surface of the tibia and inserts into the medial cuneiform and first metatarsal bones of the foot. It acts to dorsiflex and invert the foot. This muscle is mostly located near the shin. It is responsible for dorsiflexing and inverting the foot.

Only the middle (medial) cerebral artery supplies the right and left parietotemporal region of the brain. The middle cerebral artery (MCA) is a terminal branch of the internal carotid artery and is part of the anterior cerebral circulation. The MCA supplies many deep brain structures, the majority of the lateral surface of the cerebral hemispheres, and the temporal pole of the brain.

To diagnose meningitis, its necessary to analyse the cerebrospinal fluid found in the subarachnoid space (Spatium subarachnoideum). Usually a lumbar puncture is made at the space between L3 and L4.

Lordosis is defined as an excessive inward curve of the spine. It differs from the spine's normal curves at the cervical, thoracic, and lumbar regions, which are, to a degree, either kyphotic (near the neck) or lordotic (closer to the low back). The anterior longitudinal ligament is a ligament that runs down the anterior surface of the spine. It traverses all of the vertebral bodies and intervertebral discs. The posterior longitudinal ligament is situated within the vertebral canal, and extends along the posterior surfaces of the bodies of the vertebrae. A damage to the anterior longitudinal ligament therefor, can result in lordosis.